IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW IN VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS: CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS FOR REGULATING ARMED CONFLICTS IN THE ERA OF THE METAVERSE AND IMMERSIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Abstract

The article examines the implementation of international humanitarian law (IHL) norms in virtual environments during contemporary armed conflicts, with a focus on challenges posed by the metaverse and immersive technologies such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR). In the context of the ongoing Russian-Ukrainian war, which began in 2014 and escalated in 2022, the study considers examples of the use of drones, autonomous artificial intelligence (AI) systems, and virtual simulators within the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The author emphasizes the universality of the fundamental principles of IHL ‒ humanity, distinction, proportionality, and precaution ‒ and the need to adapt them to digital realities in which legal gaps arise, including the collective consequences of cyberattacks, the indiscriminate nature of drone-swarm tactics, and double-tap strikes as potential violations.

The literature review covers key sources: the 1949 Geneva Conventions and the 1977 Additional Protocols, the positions of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) on autonomous weapons systems, NATO hybrid warfare strategies, and reports by Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International on documenting war crimes. The article discusses specific examples, including Russia’s massive attacks on Ukraine’s energy infrastructure in 2022–2023 using Shahed-136 (Geran-2) drones and cyberattacks (Industroyer2, Sandworm), which caused large-scale blackouts and severely affected the civilian population, as well as the cyberattack on the Viasat KA-SAT satellite network in February 2022, which resulted in collective collateral effects across Europe.

Within the Armed Forces of Ukraine, immersive technologies are being integrated into training through simulators by L7 Simulators (UNITS VR, DRONOBII, Vartovi, Dvobii) and IHL training programs supported by DCAF and the ICRC, which foster a culture of compliance with humanitarian norms. Ukraine is positioning itself as a leader in shaping new IHL standards for hybrid conflicts, advocating for updates to existing norms in UN, CCW, and NATO forums. The study proposes several recommendations: establishing a digital platform for monitoring violations, expanding training programs, strengthening interagency coordination, and deepening international cooperation. Overall, the article underscores the need to clarify and modernize IHL to ensure civilian protection in the era of digital technologies, contributing to broader discussions on the ethical regulation of future warfare.